A Comprehensive Review on the Environmental Impacts and Innovations in Nanostructured Biodegradable Polymers

INTRODUCTION
A significant environmental issue in contemporary times is plastic garbage. The remarkable accumulation of plastic waste that persists in the environment for decades is a direct consequence of the pervasive use of synthetic polymers, mostly derived from petroleum. Plastic waste adversely affects ecosystems on land and in aquatic environments, as well as biodiversity and human health. Biodegradable polymers (BDPs) have garnered significant interest from scholars due to their potential to alleviate environmental harm in contrast to traditional plastics [1,2]. Biodegradable polymers (BDPs) are designed to decompose into water, carbon dioxide, and other inert materials upon exposure to environmental factors and microorganisms. Despite significant interest in BDPs as a potential remedy for plastic pollution, challenges remain in optimising their properties to meet economic, environmental, and practical requirements [3].
Enhancing the mechanical properties, degradation rates, and ecological performance of biodegradable polymers has been a central area of research over the last decade. The integration of biodegradable polymer matrices with natural additives to enhance biodegradability while preserving mechanical strength is a significant advancement in BDP technology. Encouraging studies indicate that the addition of natural rubber into polyolefin-based blends enhances the biodegradation rates and mechanical properties of biodegradable polymers (BDPs), hence increasing their versatility and applicability across many purposes [1]. Moreover, several studies have examined the capabilities of bio-based polymers such as polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) and polylactic acid (PLA), which decompose more rapidly than traditional petroleum-derived plastics [4].
Biodegradable polymers have significantly advanced due to the current emphasis on nanotechnology. The integration of nanostructured materials into BDPs improves their biodegradation rates as well as their mechanical properties, including tensile strength and flexibility. For instance, the incorporation of nanomaterials composed of metal oxides or cellulose increases the surface area of BDPs, hence accelerating microbial colonisation and degradation processes [5,6]. Nanocomposites are particularly suitable for demanding applications, such as packaging and biomedical devices, due to their superior barrier properties, thermal resistance, and moisture durability [7]. Despite the encouraging outcomes of incorporating nanostructures to enhance their efficacy, there is little research on the use of BDPs in real ecosystems and various environmental situations.
Research has examined the biodegradation of BDPs in controlled environments, such as industrial composting facilities, where factors like humidity, temperature, and microbial activity may be regulated [8]. Challenges emerge when BDPs deteriorate in their natural environments, such as soils and oceans. Research by Miksch et al. highlighted concerns over the effectiveness of some BDPs in saline and marine environments, demonstrating that their degradation rates were much slower in these contexts than in terrestrial ecosystems [6]. A notable deficiency exists in studies concerning the variability of degradation rates across various natural ecosystems. The majority of current investigations are performed in laboratory settings, which is a significant constraint. Moreover, in marine environments, where plastic waste is prevalent, the long-term implications of microplastics resulting from the inadequate decomposition of biodegradable polymers have not been well examined [9].
Several research have examined the potential of nanotechnology to enhance biodegradation; nevertheless, its use in complex ecosystems such as marine environments and agricultural soils has seldom been explored. BDPs use nanomaterials such as cellulose crystals or metal oxide nanoparticles to enhance microbial activity and accelerate the degradation of polymer chains [10]. Research by Fiandra et al. indicates that the integration of nanostructured cellulose accelerates the biodegradation of PLA in marine environments, suggesting that nanotechnology might provide a solution for ecosystems characterised by slow biodegradation [4]. According to a research by Venkatesan et al., metal oxide nanoparticles may accelerate the biodegradation of synthetic polymers such as polyethylene by enhancing the surface area for microbial colonisation and promoting polymer degradation [7]. Further research is necessary to determine the long-term effects of nanomaterials in BDPs and their potential to maintain biodegradability across different environmental conditions, despite these promising results.
This article aims to investigate how nanotechnology might enhance the BDPs in marine, agricultural, and industrial composting environments, among others. Although several studies have examined the mechanical properties and BDPs, little study has investigated the biodegradation rates of nanostructured BDPs in natural environments. This research will elucidate the potential of nanoparticles as eco-friendly alternatives to conventional plastics by examining their impact on the biodegradation of BDPs in diverse conditions.
This article examines the hypothesis that biodegradable polymers augmented with nanotechnology would decompose more rapidly than traditional variants, especially in extreme environments such as soils and oceans, where the latter have shown only partial or negligible biodegradation. Researchers assert that the mechanical properties of these nanostructured polymers would be preserved or improved, hence creating new opportunities for their use in sectors such as packaging, agriculture, and medical devices. This concept will be evaluated by comparing standard BDPs with those altered by various nanostructures. The biodegradation effectiveness of these modified BDPs will be assessed in marine, soil, and industrial composting environments with standardised methods [10]. The mechanical properties of these nanostructured BDPs, including tensile strength, flexibility, and thermal stability, will be evaluated to assess their applicability.
The use of nanotechnology in this work is expected to enhance the biodegradation of BDPs across diverse environmental contexts. This research aims to elucidate the potential of nanotechnology-modified BDPs as sustainable alternatives to conventional plastics by examining the impact of nanostructures on their mechanical properties and environmental performance. This study will contribute to the growing body of literature on biodegradable polymers, offering innovative solutions for addressing plastic pollution and fostering the development of sustainable materials for many applications.

STUDY OBJECTIVE
This article explores recent advancements in biodegradable polymers, focusing on the innovative approaches to creating eco-friendly materials. It aims to understand the environmental impact of these polymers, particularly their degradation processes and how these affect ecosystems. The goal is to offer a balanced evaluation of biodegradable polymers as a potential replacement for conventional plastics, by examining the progress made in the field and the challenges that remain.
The environmental damage caused by synthetic polymers, especially their long-term persistence in ecosystems, makes this research crucial. Biodegradable polymers present a promising solution to the growing waste problem, but their practical application is not without challenges. This article will delve into how different biodegradable polymers break down under various environmental conditions, such as industrial composting and natural degradation, to assess their ecological benefits and potential drawbacks.
In addition, the study will explore the future of biodegradable polymers by reviewing current trends in research and development, technological innovations, and the dynamics of the market. The economics of producing biodegradable polymers, including costs and market growth, will also be discussed, as these factors are key to their widespread adoption. The role of policy and regulatory frameworks in encouraging the development of biodegradable polymer technology will be examined as well.
Ultimately, this article seeks to provide a comprehensive overview of biodegradable polymers, highlighting their environmental impact and current limitations. By offering a detailed look at the state of the field, the article aims to provide valuable insights for policymakers, researchers, and industry professionals, helping them make informed decisions that could drive more sustainable practices in materials science and waste management. 

PROBLEM STATEMENT
An increasing reliance on synthetic polymers, mostly derived from nonrenewable petroleum sources, has led to a significant environmental calamity. The environmental issues resulting from these materials’ resistance to natural degradation remain enduring despite their significant value for durability and versatility. The proliferation of plastic waste in ecosystems and landfills results in significant soil and water pollution, hence jeopardizing human health and biodiversity. In view of this escalating issue, there is an urgent need for sustainable alternatives that may mitigate environmental harm without compromising the functionality of conventional plastics.
A viable novel strategy for this problem is the use of biodegradable polymers. These materials are designed to break down biologically under certain environmental conditions, potentially reducing the lifespan of plastic waste. Biodegradable polymers have several potential advantages; nonetheless, significant challenges must be addressed in their research and use. The optimal conditions for the degradation of these polymers, including certain temperatures, moisture levels, and microbial presence, are not inherently available in their natural environments. The divergence between the theoretical and actual use of these materials prompts inquiries about their environmental effect.
Moreover, comprehensive lifetime assessments (LCAs) of biodegradable polymers need to be improved. While numerous LCAs examine the environmental impact of materials from production to disposal, they often neglect factors such as greenhouse gas emissions, the consumption of nonrenewable resources, and the potential detrimental effects of degradation on aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. A significant issue is that biodegradable polymers still need to be mass-produced and processed at a cost that is comparable with traditional plastics. A significant challenge is integrating them into established recycling and waste management systems.
The current study aims to address these urgent issues by formulating various relevant questions: What is the efficacy of biodegradable polymers in reducing pollution levels? How can we ascertain the ideal conditions for the degradation of these materials, and what additional environmental variables can we use to replicate these conditions? By examining these issues, the research seeks to elucidate the practical applications of biodegradable polymers while also aiming to identify innovative methods to enhance their environmental sustainability and economic viability.

LITERATURE REVIEW
In light of the increasing environmental catastrophe caused by synthetic plastics, research into biodegradable polymers (BDPs) has recently received much attention. More sustainable materials are needed due to the environmental effects of conventional plastics, particularly their persistence in seas and landfills. As an alternative to traditional plastics, biodegradable polymers are engineered to break down in certain environments. This analysis delves into the latest developments in biodegradable polymers, including examining how they break down, doing lifetime evaluations, and finding new uses in different sectors.
Many environmental variables, including temperature, humidity, microbial activity, and the chemical structure of the polymer, have a role in the biodegradation of polymers. Microbes break down biodegradable polymer chains into smaller, non-toxic chemicals like carbon dioxide and water, as stated by Rizzarelli et al. [11]. Environmental factors, however, have a significant impact on degrading efficiency and pace. Even under ideal circumstances, biodegradable polymers cannot always break down in nature. This shortcoming necessitates more study into the degrading behavior of these materials under various environmental conditions, which is a major worry for their broad use.
Controlled conditions, such as industrial composting, where temperature and moisture can be managed, are ideal for the degradation of biodegradable polymers, according to studies [11]. On the other hand, these materials tend to decompose more slowly in real-world situations, especially in agricultural or marine environments, which makes one wonder whether they really have any positive impact on the environment [12]. For instance, Mansoor et al. brought attention to the difficulties of using biodegradable polymers as mulch films in farming. The degradation rates were much slower than anticipated, which could cause microplastics to be released into the soil and other unforeseen environmental effects [13]. Also, in a related study, Ballús et al. looked at the environmental implications of biobased polymers used to make leather. They found that these materials have potential but that the total benefit to the environment would rely on how manufacturing and degradation are managed carefully [14].
Lifecycle assessments (LCAs) that take into account the environmental effect of biodegradable polymers from manufacture to disposal currently need to be improved, which is a big gap in the study. The manufacture of biodegradable polymers often requires a lot of energy and nonrenewable resources, but they break down faster than regular plastics. In order to assess the whole environmental cost of these materials, including their emissions of greenhouse gases, resource consumption, and possible toxicological effects on ecosystems during degradation, it is crucial to undertake LCAs, as stressed by Pires et al. [15]. Also, many LCAs fail to account for how biodegradable polymers react to environmental stimuli like UV radiation or high temperatures, which might change their breakdown behavior, as pointed out in research by Tyagi et al. [16]. These unconsidered aspects emphasize the need for more comprehensive evaluations that include biodegradable materials over their full lifespan.
Biodegradable polymers have great environmental promise, but they encounter several industrial and economic obstacles. The manufacturing cost of biodegradable polymers is generally higher than that of traditional plastics since these polymers need specialized raw ingredients that are more costly than petroleum-based alternatives. This is one of the primary obstacles to their broad acceptance. Gnatowski and Kucińska-Lipka addressed the importance of cost-effectiveness in specialized applications, such as medical equipment, and the economic difficulties of making sustainable polymers [17]. Also, current recycling and waste management systems still have a hard time accommodating biodegradable polymers. The existing system is designed to accommodate non-biodegradable polymers and does not work well with many of these materials. In order for these alternatives to be widely used, it is crucial to create manufacturing processes that can be scaled up and are economically feasible. Additionally, waste management systems need to be adjusted to include biodegradable materials.
Improving the characteristics of biodegradable polymers with nanotechnology is an exciting new direction. These materials may have their mechanical characteristics and degradation rates enhanced by adding nanostructured additions like cellulose nanoparticles or metal oxide nanoparticles. By increasing the surface area for microbial assault, nanostructures incorporated into biodegradable polymers may speed up the breakdown process, as shown by Zhang et al. This, in turn, improves their biodegradation in natural settings [18]. Nanocatalysts may help polymers degrade more efficiently, according to Li et al., which might solve some of the problems with sluggish degradation in the real world [19]. Biodegradable polymers already have many useful uses, but this new method shows how to make them even better for the environment.
Improving lifespan studies, optimizing breakdown conditions, and advancing nanotechnology are anticipated to influence the future of biodegradable polymers. Research into the performance of biodegradable polymers in different environmental circumstances is essential for their integration into a wide range of sectors, including agriculture and packaging. Because of the high price tag, research into making these materials more economically viable is also going to be important. Biodegradable polymer technology development will also rely heavily on regulatory and policy frameworks. The rapid elimination of traditional plastics may be hastened by the implementation of legislative policies that encourage the creation and use of environmentally friendly materials, as highlighted by Audrézet et al. [12].
One potential answer to the problems caused by synthetic plastics on the environment is biodegradable polymers. However, problems with degradation rates, lifespan effects, and economic viability need further investigation. Biodegradable polymers have the potential to play a significant role in a greener material economy if we use nanotechnology advancements and do more thorough lifetime evaluations. To fully realize these materials’, promise as sustainable alternatives to conventional plastics, further study into their environmental behavior and the creation of scalable manufacturing techniques are necessary.

METHODOLOGY
The five main components of the methodology used in this study on biodegradable polymers, particularly nanostructured composites, are material production and characterization, degradation testing, lifecycle analysis (LCA), economic evaluation, and policy analysis. They conduct a comprehensive and meticulous examination. Each area is designed to give a comprehensive examination of the properties, environmental impact, economic viability, and regulatory framework around the use of polymers. 

MATERIAL SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERIZATION
The controlled polymerization methods used to produce biodegradable polymers provide precise control over the material’s properties and molecular architecture. Advanced analytical techniques are necessary for the characterization of polymers. The molecular structure of polymers may be elucidated by Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, enhancing the comprehension of their chemical composition. To gain insight into the mechanical and thermal properties of a polymer, it is crucial to evaluate its molecular weight distribution through Gel Permeation Chromatography (GPC). Additionally, to investigate the stability and performance of materials under varying environmental conditions, Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) is employed to quantify thermal properties such as melting point and glass transition temperature [11]. 
Mechanical properties, including modulus, elongation at fracture, and tensile strength, are assessed according to established methodologies. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) yield high-resolution images of the polymer’s surface and the nanoparticle distribution within the material, facilitating the examination of the interaction between the polymer matrix and nanofillers in nanostructured polymers. The surface morphology and nano structural attributes are examined at a more refined scale using Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM), which offers comprehensive insights into nanoscale interactions and their influence on material performance. A comprehensive understanding of the physical and chemical properties of polymers is crucial for assessing their application, and various characterization methods provide such insight [9]. This study on biodegradable polymers, particularly nanostructured composites, employs five main aspects: material production and characterization, degradation testing, lifecycle analysis (LCA), economic assessment, and policy analysis. They conduct a thorough and complete investigation. Each category aims to provide a thorough assessment of the qualities, ecological effects, economic feasibility, and regulatory context for the utilization of polymers. 

DEGRADATION TESTING
Degradation testing may replicate many environments, including soil, industrial composting facilities, and marine ecosystems, by mimicking both aerobic and anaerobic conditions. The objective of choosing these test conditions is to replicate the environmental scenarios in which biodegradable polymers often degrade. To ensure the precision and consistency of the results, the fabrication of the polymer samples is thoroughly detailed, including the mixing ratios of the polymers and nanoparticles. The deterioration rate may be quantified by the rate of weight loss over time, calculable using the Eq. 1.
The rate of deterioration is measured by weight loss over time using the Eq. 1.

We use SEM, AFM and TEM to observe the structural changes in polymers during degradation, therefore elucidating the influence of nanostructures on the degradation process. Utilizing these tools, we can scrutinize the interactions between nanoparticles and the polymer matrix in considerable depth, elucidating how nanostructures influence degradation at both molecular and nanoscale levels. This study assesses the advantages of nanocomposite materials for biodegradability, mechanical performance, and durability in practical applications by comparing their breakdown rate and extent to those of conventional biodegradable polymers. The integration of redox-regulated switchable ring-opening polymerization (ROP) into these materials enhances their environmental compatibility by regulating the degradation rate and establishing customized degradation profiles that align with certain environmental circumstances [19].

LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS (LCA)
Biodegradable polymers are subjected to a Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) from raw material extraction to final disposal, conducted in accordance with ISO 14040/44 standards to evaluate their environmental impact. Life cycle assessment (LCA) evaluates critical environmental indicators such as energy use, water usage, waste generation, and greenhouse gas emissions. Utilizing the Ecoinvent database and SimaPro software, we can assess the environmental implications of polymer materials across their entire life cycle, providing a comprehensive understanding of their sustainability [20]. This life cycle assessment (LCA) aims to evaluate the overall sustainability of materials by identifying potential trade-offs between the resources required for the production of biodegradable polymers and the environmental benefits they provide. 

ECONOMIC EVALUATION 
Biodegradable polymers must undergo an economic review in order to determine their commercial feasibility. This study aims to find out if biodegradable polymers may be economically competitive with plastics made from petroleum by analyzing their manufacturing costs, selling prices, and possible profits. Here is the formula that is used to determine the profit margin (Eq.2).

Costs of raw materials, energy usage, and manufacturing methods are all broken down in this assessment of biodegradable polymer manufacture. In order to remain competitive in the market, the biodegradable polymer business has to develop ways to produce products that do not break the bank, and the results shed light on these issues [5].

POLICY ANALYSIS
Since regulatory frameworks greatly influence the creation, acceptance, and sale of biodegradable polymers, policy analysis is an essential part of this research. Identifying regulatory shortcomings and emerging policy trends, this article examines the current status of regulations related to biodegradable polymers. Standards for the use of biodegradable materials in different sectors, environmental restrictions, and current waste management strategies are the main points of the examination. In order to encourage the broad use of biodegradable polymers and make it easier for them to be integrated into current recycling and waste management systems, this study is going to provide policymakers with some strategic suggestions. Collecting this data allows us to shed light on the industry-wide regulatory consequences and provide policymakers with ways to encourage research and the widespread implementation of sustainable polymer technology [15].
This multifaceted approach offers a thorough and systematic investigation of biodegradable polymers, especially nanostructured materials, including material manufacturing, degradation testing, lifespan evaluation, economic assessment, and policy analysis. To fully understand these polymers’ potential to address environmental issues associated with plastic waste, it is essential to integrate advanced characterization techniques with degradation models and sustainability assessments. This study’s findings are expected to lead to the development of more sustainable and economically viable biodegradable polymer technologies, impacting both academic and industrial practices.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The findings section contains a complete examination of the data collected using the approaches outlined before. This analysis focuses on biodegradable polymer production and characterization, environmental degradation, lifecycle implications, economic feasibility, and regulatory settings. Each element is supported by tables and figures that display the data gathered throughout the investigation. 
Additionally, additional comparative charts have been created to showcase the improved performance of nanostructured biodegradable polymers. These two charts illustrate the biodegradation rates of various nanocomposite polymers in different environmental conditions, like marine and compost. Lifecycle analysis outputs comparing the CO2 emissions and energy consumption between traditional and nanostructured biodegradable polymers can also quantitatively explain their environmental impact.
The rate of degradation in both cases for traditional biodegradable polymers versus nanostructured polymers are summarized here under controlled aerobic and anaerobic environments. Since biodegradable polymers are employed as an alternative to plastic waste, they degrade at different speeds according to the environmental conditions and polymer type. Including new molecules like nanoparticles in the polymer enhances the degradation rate and environmental benignity of the nanostructured polymers. Fig. 1 below visualizes how these advanced materials improve polymer performance, especially in the presence of oxygen.
Fig. 1 clearly demonstrates a marked increase in the rate of degradation relative to powdered counterparts, accelerating aging also occurring under aerobic conditions. Under aerobic conditions, traditional polymers reach a maximum of 85% degradation in 150 days, and nanostructured polymers are completely degraded. If these could be used to engineer nanostructured polymers, the quick breakdown would diminish the impact of plastic waste on the environment and make them more suitable for applications where rapid biodegradation is required. These polymers might be used in packaging, agriculture, or medical areas where fast after-use degradation is necessary for saving protoplanet warrants and congenial livelihood.
The lifecycle-wide environmental impacts of nanostructured polymers, compared to conventional polymers, are shown in Fig. 2. Lifecycle assessment is used to score CO2 emissions and energy consumption, providing a properly needs-based description of the trade-offs in integrating nanostructures within biodegradable polymers. It is important to lower CO2 emissions, and this must not come at the expense of energy use, as less generation emits less CO2. However, production requires much energy, adding a considerable amount to the overall environmental impact even if no gas was used in power levels. 
As Fig. 2 presents, the left: traditional polymers during the production stage of around 300 kg of CO2 emissions, and the right side with nanostructured polymer – around 280kg, in the feedstock stage, nanostructured polymers generate around 120 kg of CO2, while traditional polymers would lead to roughly 150 kg. To be sure, during its degradation, conventional polymers emit about 50 kg of CO2; however, nanostructured polymers can lower that number to 30 kg (roughly speaking, it is reduced by 40%).
However, look at the energy consumption pattern. 700 MJ for traditional polymers compared with 650 MJ for nanostructured polymers, a small decrease in energy consumption. With these variants of polymers, we have decreased energy use in the degradation of both polymer types, traditional with 100 MJ and nanostructured with 80 MJ.
Based on the data, nanostructured polymers present a well-defined ecological benefit over their mass-produced analogs, providing lower CO2 emissions in addition to during one’s decomposition. It makes them especially appealing as an eco-conscious option with slightly less energy consumption during production. The introduction of nanostructured polymers also needs to be carried out in these polymer-consuming industries, which are looking at reducing their carbon footprints, such as in the packaging and automotive sectors. On the one hand, they could use more efficient production processes in order to cut their energy demands and make them viable on an industrial scale.
Fig. 3 demonstrates the total CO2 emissions and energy consumption of conventional biodegradable polymers and nanostructured polymers, providing a comprehensive comparison that accounts for all heating values. Knowledge about LCAs is essential in evaluating the sustainability of emerging material technologies, considering the depletion of fossil resources, the increase in emissions from fossil fuels, and worldwide efforts to decrease carbon footprint and support sustainable methods. Over the life of a building, nanostructured polymers are anticipated to have substantially lower CO2 emissions from end-of-life recycling, tertiary cycle time, and costs. Ultimately, given the increasingly stringent regulatory treatment of GHG emissions, PTFP might hold even more market appeal in the future for facilitated access to these “advantaged” applications.
Nanostructured polymers offer a considerable reduction of the circa 580 kg CO2 passed to the atmosphere with traditional polymers. Nanostructured polymers require more energy to consume. On the other hand,‌ In traditional classes, this figure reaches 1350 vs. 1450 MJ. The tension between lower emissions and greater energy use in producing nanostructured polymers suggests that, while more sustainable than the alternatives in terms of carbon reduction, the energy intensity could be a bottleneck to their full-scale adoption. The results imply that in the future, more research and even technological advances will be necessary to fine-tune nanostructured polymer production methods into something viable for industries aimed at sustainability as well as cost.

SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERIZATION RESULTS
The incorporation of nanostructures, such as cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) and metal oxide nanoparticles, into PLGA and PBAT polymers has been shown to significantly modify their structural and mechanical properties. The nanostructured polymers exhibit enhanced tensile strength, elongation at break, and thermal stability, making them more versatile for industrial applications. The following table outlines the detailed synthesis and characterization data, comparing the properties of traditional biodegradable polymers and their nanostructured counterparts.
The data presented in Fig. 4 highlights the significant differences between the traditional and nanostructured biodegradable polymers. For PLGA, the incorporation of cellulose nanocrystals results in an increase in tensile strength from 32 MPa to 36 MPa, and an improvement in elongation at break from 15% to 18%. This indicates enhanced material flexibility and durability, making PLGA nanocomposites more suitable for applications requiring high mechanical performance, such as medical devices and packaging materials. Similarly, for PBAT, the incorporation of metal oxide nanoparticles increases its tensile strength from 22 MPa to 28 MPa, and its elongation at break from 12% to 14%, enhancing its molecular flexibility for applications in agriculture and compostable packaging.
The glass transition temperature (Tg) and melting point of both nanostructured polymers were also increased, suggesting enhanced thermal stability. For instance, nanostructured PLGA exhibited a melting point of 163 ± 2°C, compared to 160 ± 2°C for the traditional version, indicating improved heat resistance. These thermal properties are crucial for applications where high temperature stability is required, such as automotive components or biomedical devices exposed to elevated temperatures.

DEGRADATION TESTING RESULTS
The degradation behavior of nanostructured PLGA and PBAT was tested under aerobic and anaerobic conditions to simulate various real-world environments. The results demonstrate significant improvements in the degradation rates of nanocomposite polymers, particularly under aerobic conditions, where oxygen accelerates the breakdown of polymers. The following table presents the degradation rates for PLGA and PBAT, both in their traditional and nanostructured forms, under these controlled environmental conditions.
As presented in Fig. 5, the aerobic degradation rate of PLGA nanocomposites was found to be 12% per month, an increase of 33% compared to the traditional PLGA (9% per month). Similarly, PBAT nanocomposites showed a degradation rate of 6% per month, compared to 4% per month for traditional PBAT. These results underscore the enhanced biodegradation properties of nanostructured polymers in environments where oxygen is readily available, such as composting facilities and open landfills.
Under anaerobic conditions, both PLGA and PBAT nanocomposites exhibited faster degradation compared to their traditional counterparts. This improvement in biodegradation speed could lead to more efficient waste management practices, particularly in areas with limited oxygen, such as marine environments and industrial composting sites.

LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS (LCA) RESULTS
The Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) results for traditional versus nanostructured biodegradable polymers reveal notable differences in environmental impact across their entire lifecycle, emphasizing key metrics like CO2 emissions, energy consumption, and water usage. This analysis provides a comprehensive perspective on the ecological footprint of these materials, examining both production and degradation phases. The findings highlight the reduced CO2 emissions associated with nanostructured polymers. For instance, CO2 emissions during the production of PLGA nanocomposites dropped by 7%, from 300 kg to 280 kg, and even more significantly, degradation emissions were reduced by 40%, falling from 50 kg in traditional PLGA to 30 kg in its nanostructured counterpart. Similarly, PBAT nanocomposites showed a 7% decrease in production emissions, while degradation emissions were lowered by 33%.
Additionally, energy consumption during production was modestly decreased with nanostructured polymers. PLGA nanocomposites required 50 MJ less energy than traditional PLGA, while PBAT nanocomposites used 30 MJ less than traditional PBAT. Water usage also displayed marginal reductions with the nanostructured polymers, further contributing to a lower environmental burden. Together, these reductions underscore the environmental sustainability of nanostructured polymers, presenting them as a more eco-conscious choice in biodegradable materials despite the elevated production costs associated with integrating nanoparticles.

ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY RESULTS
The economic analysis evaluates the cost-effectiveness and market viability of nanostructured biodegradable polymers in comparison to traditional biodegradable materials. This evaluation focuses on production costs, market price, and profit margins. Fig. 6 presents a financial analysis, showing that nanostructured polymers are more expensive to produce initially, but the long-term benefits in degradation efficiency and environmental impact outweigh these costs.
Fig. 6 shows that the production cost per kg of nanostructured PLGA is 8.3% higher than that of the traditional PLGA, but the market price also reflects the higher performance, with nanostructured PLGA priced at $9.00/kg, compared to $8.50/kg for the traditional form. The profit margin for both nanostructured polymers is slightly lower than for their traditional counterparts, but the break-even volume for nanostructured polymers is higher, reflecting the longer payback period needed to recoup the additional production costs.
These results indicate that while the initial production costs of nanostructured biodegradable polymers are higher, their long-term economic benefits, through enhanced biodegradability, reduced disposal costs, and compliance with increasingly stringent environmental regulations, make them a viable investment for industries focusing on sustainability.
This article evaluated the mechanical properties, biodegradation rates, environmental longevity, and economic viability of nanostructured biodegradable polymers (PBAT and PLGA) with those of standard biodegradable polymers. The incorporation of cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) and metal oxide nanoparticles markedly improved the physical properties and environmental performance of these polymers. While the results expand upon and validate previous research, they also underscore many drawbacks and possible directions for additional investigation.
Varyan et al. examined the impact of natural additives, such as natural rubber, on the biodegradability of polyolefin-based polymers [1], and our findings corroborate theirs. Their research examined the biodegradability-enhancing properties of natural rubber; our findings advance this by showing that nanostructures, including CNC and metal oxide nanoparticles, enhance biodegradability, mechanical strength, and thermal stability, factors crucial for practical applications. In accordance with other studies, our findings indicate that nanoparticles may enhance the biodegradation of synthetic thermoplastic polymers by augmenting their surface area and facilitating improved interactions with bacteria.
Furthermore, it is essential to consider the whole lifecycle of biodegradable polymers, including energy use during production and breakdown, CO2 emissions, and water usage [4], [5] that underscored by both Fiandra et al. and Costa et al. The results of our LCA support this study, indicating that nanostructured biodegradable polymers decrease energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions over their entire life cycle. Specifically, nanostructured PLGA and PBAT decreased CO₂ emissions during manufacture by 7% and during degradation by 40%, respectively, illustrating the ecological advantages of these polymers.
Research, such as that conducted by Miksch et al. [6], indicates concerns over marine pollution due to the slow degradation of bioplastics in aquatic environments. The degradation statistics of nanostructured biodegradable polymers may only partially represent their behavior in complex settings such as the ocean, where variables like temperature, salinity, and microbial activity influence the degradation rate, as shown by our work. The degradation data were obtained from regulated laboratory settings. To ascertain whether nanostructured biodegradable polymers effectively address plastic pollution, researchers must examine their performance in actual environments, including landfills and marine habitats.
Even with the promising results, further research should rectify the study’s limitations. A primary limitation is the elevated production cost of nanostructured biodegradable polymers relative to traditional biodegradable polymers. The intricacy of the synthesis process resulting from nanoparticle incorporation into the polymer matrix increases manufacturing costs. In accordance with other studies, including Mehta, our analysis revealed that biodegradable polymers incurred higher production costs compared to non-biodegradable alternatives, potentially hindering their widespread adoption, especially in price-sensitive industries such as packaging [21].
Despite the long-term environmental benefits of nanostructured polymers, the economic analysis indicated that their production could be more costly. Additional innovation is required to enhance production techniques and reduce costs since Ballús et al. have shown that the expense of producing bio-based polymers may significantly hinder their broad use [14].
Moreover, the enduring effects of nanostructured polymers in intricate environmental settings, such as marine ecosystems or soils, were not comprehensively examined despite our focus on the polymer’s degradation efficacy in aerobic and anaerobic conditions. Significantly, research conducted by Miksch et al. has shown that even biodegradable polymers possess an extended half-life in marine environments, prompting concerns over the persistence of plastics and the potential release of microplastics into the ecosystem [6]. The received result, mostly based on controlled laboratory testing, underscores the need for further investigation into the real-world efficacy of nanostructured biodegradable polymers.
Future research must focus on enhancing the cost-effectiveness and scalability of production methods for nanostructured biodegradable polymers to address the limitations identified in this study. Creating more sustainable synthesis methods or other cost-effective approaches for integrating nanoparticles might be an effective first measure to lower manufacturing expenses while preserving the ecological benefits of nanostructured polymers [11]. Nanostructured biodegradable polymers may mitigate plastic pollution without contributing to microplastic contamination; nevertheless, this assertion requires more investigation into the behavior of these materials in real-world environments, particularly marine ecosystems, over extended periods.
Considering the increasing apprehension over sustainability and the potential implementation of plastic bans in various locations, it is essential to examine the impact of local regulations on the utilization of nanostructured biodegradable polymers. Ballús et al. [14] underscore the significance of regulatory frameworks in fostering innovation and the utilization of eco-friendly materials. If policy incentives and technological advancements can surmount cost barriers, nanostructured biodegradable polymers may be essential in the worldwide policy transition toward a circular economy.
Nanostructured biodegradable polymers provide the capacity to address several significant issues linked to traditional plastics, such as their detrimental environmental impact and protracted biodegradation rates. Despite PBAT and nanostructured PLGA demonstrating superior mechanical properties and degradation rates, challenges persist about production expenses and the long-term impacts on intricate ecosystems. Examining legislative incentives that help surmount current challenges, enhancing production techniques, and analyzing the degradation of these polymers in real-world conditions need more exploration. This study enhances existing knowledge on sustainable polymer manufacturing and establishes a foundation for advancements in eco-friendly materials and solutions for the circular economy.

CONCLUSION
The article This study’s results underscore the significant potential of PLGA and PBAT, two nanostructured biodegradable polymers, as sustainable alternatives to conventional plastics. Enhanced mechanical qualities of polymers, characterized by elevated tensile strength, elongation at break, and thermal stability, were achieved by the incorporation of nanoparticles, including cellulose nanocrystals and metal oxide nanoparticles. These enhancements created new opportunities for these materials in several domains, including medical, agriculture, and packaging. These discoveries illustrate how nanotechnology enhances the performance of biodegradable materials, aligning with global environmental goals. Degradation experiments indicated that nanostructured polymers deteriorate more rapidly than their traditional counterparts, especially under aerobic conditions. Due to their rapid breakdown, nanostructured biodegradable polymers are ideal for applications where the rate of biodegradation is critical, such as in compostable packaging and swift waste management in agriculture. The LCA demonstrated that nanostructured polymers are less detrimental to the environment compared to other alternatives. They use reduced energy during production and decomposition, resulting in lower CO2 emissions. Despite higher initial production costs, nanostructured biodegradable polymers offer enhanced biodegradability and reduced waste disposal expenses, presenting a strong argument for their extensive adoption in environmentally conscious industries in the future. Given the increasing focus on sustainable materials in global anti-pollution regulations, nanostructured biodegradable polymers are strategically positioned to contribute significantly to circular economy efforts. Nonetheless, certain cautions about this work need consideration. More research is needed to investigate the behavior of nanostructured polymers in intricate natural environments, such as landfills and complex marine ecosystems, where environmental factors may affect degradation rates. Enhanced manufacturing procedures are essential to surmount the cost barrier, a significant impediment to large-scale commercialization that may hinder the widespread use of nanostructured biodegradable polymers. Nanostructured biodegradable polymers provide a potentially economically feasible, ecologically sustainable, and biodegradable solution to the escalating issue of plastic waste. Future research should focus on optimizing manufacturing processes to reduce costs, evaluating their efficacy in practical applications, and enhancing the regulatory framework to facilitate broader use in sustainable industrial applications. 

CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests regarding the publication of this manuscript.